(Translated from German) From Serbian вампир/vampire, it is folklore and mythology, a nocturnal bloodsucker, and usually the reanimated human corpse, human or animal blood and the lives of supernatural forces has. Depending on the culture and the myth forces, vampires are also attributed various magical properties. Sometimes it is also non-humans such as creatures of demons or animals (e.g., bats, dogs, spiders).
Named after the legendary figure, the blood-sucking bat (Desmodontinae), the only mammal group that exclusively feeds on the blood of other animals.
Reality and Myth
Origin
The models for the most widespread idea of vampires in Western Europe originate from Southeast Europe and Slavic folklore and Romanian mythology. The vampire spread from the Carpathian region through Romania (Transylvania), Hungary, Eastern Austria, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, and Greece. These vampires are scientifically understood, and primarily as a social, anthropological phenomenon, where the harm to individuals or the community caused by illness, crop failure, or death is attributed to them. The "bloodsucking" of the "vampire" is not the primary element in popular belief; rather, it is the removal from one's own grave. The cause had to be tracked down and identified by the village communities. A decaying corpse found in a suspicious grave (Peter Kreuter calls a cross or a rat hole a sign) was then dealt with in various ways, once dead and then burned, which is still what often happens to a vampire at the end of most films, etc.
In Orthodox Christian belief in Southeast Europe, priests far from the dying process, and the lack of a sacrament can be seen here as a blurring of the boundaries between the living and the dead. The idea of vampires is not only spread in Southeast Europe. Almost all over the world, there are myths about vampires or beings that share the most important characteristics with them, for example:
- ASANBOSAM (Ghana, Togo, Ivory Coast)
- ASWANG (Philippines)
- BAOBHAN SITH (Scotland)
- GHOULS (Greece, since ancient times)
- WRUKOLAKAS (also Greece)
- CHIANG-SHIH (China)
- DHAMPIR (or vampire) (Albania)
- VAMPIRE (Vampire), VUKODLAK (werewolf), Serbia, Croatia, Dalmatia)
The most famous alleged first vampire from Croatia, from the small village of Kringa (Istria), died in 1652 and lived there in his last years. He was a farmer and was named Jure Grando. In 1672, his grave was disturbed, and he is said to have often terrorized the village. In Vajkard Valvasor's literary work, this vampire is mentioned for the first time in European literature. Johann Joseph Görres, in his multi-volume work "Christian Mysticism," printed in Regensburg from 1836 to 1842, led to the background.
The founding fathers of the modern vampire myth can be considered John Polidori, J. Sheridan Le Fanu (1814-1873), and Bram Stoker. While the first awakened general interest in the figure of the vampire, Bram Stoker coined the concrete image of the vampire.
The majority of international popular vampire types and their names were determined by the British occultist Montague Summers (1880-1948). Summers was convinced of the existence of vampires and werewolves and declared every conceivable spooky being as proof of his theory of vampires, even if the folkloric tradition of the country was only vaguely similar to bloodsucking, even though Summers' definition of an undead was different.
Similarly, the vampire myth is derived from vampirism backward into superstition, and the consumption of blood as the essence of life is life-giving. Well-known in this context is the notorious blood-drinking "countess" Erzsébet Báthory (Elizabeth Bathory), who belonged to a Hungarian aristocratic family. After her husband's death, she is said to have bathed in the blood of over six hundred virgins in her castle to maintain her youth. This accusation was never proven or demonstrated. Similarly, the hustle and bustle of Countess Bathory contributed to the emergence of the vampire myth in Eastern Europe.
The most famous vampire from Romanian popular mythology is associated with Dracula (Vlad III. Dracula), who is linked to Vlad Tepes (in German: "the Impaler"). This appears to be a translation error on the part of a 19th-century Scottish writer, who compiled the world and provided writers of all sorts of fantastic characteristics for 20th-century non-fiction organizations until he became established in vampire encyclopedias.
To this day, beliefs in vampires or vampire-like forms appear in different ethnic groups in Asia, Africa, and South America, as well as in Eastern Europe. The internet, in particular, has emerged as a popular medium for dissemination.
The last exciting international vampire event in Europe dates back to 2005: In the Romanian village of Marotinu de Sus, the body of a resident who had died two years earlier was exhumed. This was suspected of being a local form of vampire - a Strigoi - that brought evil. The family members cut out the heart, burned it, dissolved the ashes in water, and drank the solution.[1]
Upir
As an alternative to the term "vampire," the name "Upir" (Ukrainian упир) became common in the early modern period, originating from Polish and Ukrainian. The suffix "pir" means "wing" or "suspended being," a sign of the vampire's supposed flight. The term "Upir" also likely stems from the fact that its origin is assumed to be in Southeastern Europe rather than in Poland.
The first recorded mention of the name Upir is from the year 1047 AD, referring to Prince Upir Lichyi near Novgorod in northwestern Greater Russia. In Western Russia, there are also places called Upiry and Upirow, whose inhabitants boast of being descendants of vampires.
Strigoi
Another variation of vampire belief in ancient Romanian folklore is found in the "Strigoi." Romanian is a Romance language, so the word originates from Latin, where "strix" means "witch." "Strigoi" are, "contrary to" the Greek "Upir" and the Romanian "Wrukolakas," only humans and not demonic spirits who return from the dead. "Strigoi" are also divided into two categories: "Strigoi morti" (dead Strigoi) and "Strigoi vii" (living Strigoi). The former are the living dead; the latter are people already cursed in their lifetime who, after death, are "forced" to become Strigoi.
Descent from a "Strigoi Mort" or, more rarely, from heavy sins of the mother. Anatomical discrepancies are interpreted as signs of such a curse, such as spine protrusions resembling a tail or parts of the amniotic sac grown on the head, referred to in Romanian vernacular as "omentum" (from Latin: "omentum," German: amniotic sac, see caul called). Originally, Strigoi had nothing to do with vampirism. Bloodlust was later attached to them through horror films, books, etc. Strigoi are believed to visit relatives of the deceased and want to take them with them. To create a boundary between the realm of the dead and the living, funeral spindles are attached to the grave and burned. Often, mirrors, soap, razors, etc., are placed in the grave as grave goods so that the deceased has no reason to return to the realm of the living and act as a Strigoi. This belief is widespread in Romania and Eastern European countries. Some iron is placed on the dead, a burning heart is put in. This is to prevent the dead from becoming Strigoi. In rare cases, Strigoi seek out relatives to make them sick or kill them.
Vampires in the German Language
Especially in the 18th century, many cases of vampires were reported, mainly in villages in Southeastern Europe. After the end of the last Turkish war in 1718, parts of the country, such as northern Serbia and parts of Bosnia, fell to Austria. This territory was settled by Orthodox Christian refugees who were granted the status of armed farmers. They were responsible for agricultural development and border security, which is why the first reports of vampires appeared in the German language.
Between 1718 and 1732, real vampire epidemics were reported in villages in Eastern European countries. One of the first and most famous reports from 1724-1725 refers to the village of Kisolova in central-eastern Serbia. The Kameralprovisor Frombald was tasked with clarifying who was responsible for the vampire cases. His report[2] was published on July 21, 1725, in the Austrian state newspaper. Frombald described his experiences in Kisolova. In this village, an increase in mortality was apparently the reason, with nine people dying within eight days, and others suffering from illness daily. Peter Plogojowitz (also Plagojevic, actually Blagojevic) was blamed, who had died ten weeks earlier. On his deathbed, he is said to have told patients that they had been strangled by Plogojowitz in their sleep, which was interpreted as the act of a later vampire. Plogojowitz's grave was opened, and the corpse was found in a state that suggested it was a vampire: it was still perfectly incorruptible, had a fresh complexion, and a foul odor of decay emanated from it. Furthermore, the skin, hair, and nails had grown, after which the original skin and nails had been torn off. Fresh blood was found in the orifices, thought to be the blood of the victims. The villagers therefore decided to exhume the corpse and burn it.
The report aroused great interest, and vampires from Eastern Europe quickly entered the German language, but were soon forgotten. Most of the affected villages sent doctors or priests to investigate the vampire cases. These allegedly exhumed the vampires and wrote—often extensive—reports of the plague. They also ensured that all decapitated bodies were burned and appeared suspicious.
From 1732 onwards, vampire reports were considered from many other perspectives, especially medical and scientific investigations. Numerous dissertations were written on the subject. In 1732, reports of the vampire myth also reached the French and Dutch public through the publication of reports from military villages in various newspapers. The doctors and skilled theologians of the corresponding regions often wrote about the death of a hitherto unknown disease. If victims of this disease were buried too shallowly, they could transfer it, which was supposed to explain the increase in deaths in the villages.
All "typical" vampire indicators can be explained by natural causes of the body, as Michael Ranft, who responded to the 1725 report from Kisolova as the first, stated. He wrote several treatises, such as "Dissertatio historico-critica de mortuorum in tumulis creatione, seu de masticatione et stridore mortuorum in sepulchris" (A historical-critical treatise on the chewing and creaking of the dead in tombs). He attributed all rational vampire marks, such as chewing and knocking sounds from decomposition processes and animal predation, incorruptibility to environmental influences and the deceased's constitution, as well as the fresh blood in the body's openings, which were allegedly tinged red by the vampire's secretions. He attributed characteristics identified by doctors and others to fear, superstition, and exaggerated imagination.
Augustin Calmet, a French Benedictine scholar, explained in his work published in 1745, "Dictionarium historicum, criticum et chronologicum," that as early as 1680, there were reports of vampires, especially from Serbian and Slavic languages. He also attributed natural causes to the vampire marks.
In 1755, Gerard van Swieten was sent from Moravia to investigate the situation of vampires in the country. Van Swieten was the personal physician to Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. He carefully examined the alleged vampire cases and wrote a sober report in which, like Ranft,[4] he attributed natural causes as an explanation for the vampires.
Thus, Gerard van Swieten was probably one of the most important fighters against the so-called superstition of the "common" people. Because of his report, Maria Theresa issued a decree on the subject of vampires, prohibiting traditional measures such as stakes, decapitation, and burning. She also ordered that references to so-called resurrected dead should no longer be reported to the church, which still obeyed superstition, but to the authorities. In 1756, she also sent the German surgeon Georg Taller to vampire-affected areas to investigate the situation again and to compile a new report. Eastern Europe was precisely at that time considered backward and in need of civilization. It was therefore only in the 18th century that it was seen as the antithesis of Western and Central Europe, which described itself as enlightened. The Enlightenment saw it as scandalous how such superstition could arise.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau aptly described the vampire myth of the 18th century:
"S'il y a jamais une histoire au monde et été garantie prouvée, c'est celle de vampiros. Rien ne manque: rapports officiels, témoignages de personnes de qualité, de chirurgie, de prêtre, juges de: l'est preuve complète."
(Translated approximately: "If ever there was a proven and tested story in the world, it is that of vampires. Nothing is missing: official reports, testimonies from people of quality, from surgeons, from priests, from judges: the proof is complete.")
The church, which allegedly continued to fuel superstition—as Maria Theresa's opinion suggests—was at least partially regulated and strongly opposed to the "measures" against vampires. Pope Benedict XIV replied to a question from a Polish archbishop, stating that he could only rely on van Swieten's report regarding "vampires" and that he was convinced of the absurdity of vampires. In his letter, he clearly indicated to the archbishop that he wanted him to "eradicate this superstition." He also threatened priests who promoted superstition with deposition.
In Germany, the term "vampire" has been in use since around 1720, i.e., since the first reports of the so-called "Serbian vampires" (Kisolova, Medveca). Earlier evidence, such as the farewell speech "you call us vampires," a supposed execution in Münster in 1643, or a French nobleman called Boaz, are pseudopoetic falsifications. Goethe's ballad "The Bride of Corinth" (1797) processed the vampire myth—at least in echoes—in literary form. His undead bride does not suck blood but leads her lover to her grave.
In German-speaking countries, the pure form of the vampire is not found, although there are various references, such as beliefs and parallel actions against an undead, that could be taken. After the apparent widespread occurrence in Germany, the undead remained in the grave and, as so-called Nachzehrer, sucked the life force from it. As early as the 14th to 17th centuries in Europe, there was a belief in so-called "Nachsterben" to kill ghosts and thus Nachzehrer. They were said to sit upright in the grave and chew their shroud or their own limbs to their relatives, and suck the life energy that they brought to the grave. Death took so long that the shroud was consumed, during which time a striking sound was heard from the grave.
Furthermore, the "butcher bird" (Pomerania, East Prussia) and the "sucker" (Wendland) are figures that come very close to the classic vampire figure, and their struggle is similar in detail to that of the vampires from Southeastern Europe.
As some vampire handbooks report, there is the idea in South America that vampires can turn into bats. The specific source of evidence for this transformation is not generally provided. If these reports of transformation in imagination correspond to reality, it would likely be due to the fact that in South America there is a group of bats (vampire bats) that feed exclusively on blood, but mainly on animal blood. Reports of attacks by blood-sucking bats on humans are speculative or sensationalist fantasies, but genuinely isolated incidents are rare. This shows the historical relationship of the vampire subject with the belief in werewolves (also called lycanthropes).
Attributed Characteristics
The different traditions of the vampire myth describe various characteristics and properties that make up the modern idea of the vampire. Such characteristics have been passed down from different sources, which vary in detail. It is estimated that only a fraction of the myths from that time have survived, but that allows for a unified description of a vampire to some extent.
According to this, vampires are undead creatures in human form who live in their graves and sleep in their coffins during the day. They are characterized by their pale appearance and feed exclusively on blood. This is probably why vampires have an abnormal bite, characterized by their sharp canine teeth, which are used for all these characteristics before. In many old depictions, two, rarely four, canines are mentioned. These vampires inflict a bite wound on their victims, who are essentially human, usually in the neck area near the artery. Then they drink their victims' blood to satisfy their bloodlust. Other depictions show vampires as having human form but being able to transform into bats or giant bat creatures. They can also climb walls.
An essential characteristic attributed to the vampire is immortality, combined with superhuman strength in general and bloodlust—a large part of the terror of the vampire myth. Furthermore, vampires have a pronounced sexual drive. Vampires are said to have a powerful attraction to their chosen sex and be seducers.
Those bitten by vampires become vampires themselves. In some legends, however, vampire bites are also documented in various ways. In some states, the vampire can decide whether its victim transforms into a vampire or a vampire, a kind of zombie-like metamorphosis. It is known that the ghoul has nothing to do with the vampire myth traditionally, as it originated in the circle of Persian and Arabic myths of corpse-eating demons. However, other stories say that a victim of a vampire could only become a vampire if a "dirty" animal, such as a cat, jumped over a corpse or an open grave. Another variation says that the vampire was a victim of the vampire only when they drank blood that had flowed through the vampire's veins.
In some legends, vampires can transform into bats or (rarely) into wolves, which has since proven that the transformation of the bat from Romanian popular mythology does not occur. Vampires are primarily seen as nocturnal creatures that dissolve into dust or burn when exposed to sunlight. This seems to be mainly an invention by director Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau for his film Nosferatu. In Abraham Stoker's depiction, this vulnerability is rather only a weakening of the vampire during the day. Often, this also means they do not have a mirror. Furthermore, it is reported that vampires were unable to cross running water or were generally afraid of water.
Even vampires can only enter an occupied building if an inhabitant has invited them. Furthermore, vampires are often attributed the ability to recover quickly from injuries.
Further details about vampires are not common; silver victim coins are placed in the mouth of the dead to prevent them from transforming into an undead.[5] Relevant examples for the review of written works from this period include the rational and Christian Thoughts on the Vampire from 1733[6] by Johann Christoph Harenberg, and a widely cited report[7] by the military doctor Johann Flückinger.
Defense
Legends provided passive protection against vampires, some of which were widely applied in the 18th century. Garlic and representations of a crucifix serve as deterrents. After an experimental study with blood, the effectiveness of garlic was questioned.[8] Holy water also harms vampires. The latter, in particular, emphasizes the idea of a vampire's "demonic character." Forms of destroying a vampire included decapitation and, above all, stakes (driving a wooden peg through the heart). In some depictions, however, stakes only lead to a kind of rigor mortis, after which the creature will return. Approaching a combination of these two practices (decapitation and stakes) should also prevent the vampire from returning as an undead. In this method, the vampire is impaled, and the creature's head is separated with a gravedigger's shovel. Then the mouth of the dead is filled with garlic.
In other regions, people place objects in the coffins of the dead to prevent these dead from rising from their graves again. This is done by placing grave goods such as fishing nets or poppy seeds in the graves. The dead person should annually open a knot or eat a poppy seed and remain occupied.
Vampires in the Media
The first vampires were made famous by their romantic portrayal in literature.[9] Bram Stoker's first vampire novel, Dracula (1897), as well as earlier stories like Carmilla by Joseph Sheridan LeFanu (1872) and John Polidori's The Vampyre (1819), laid the foundation and presented the dangerous monsters as objects of desire and soul.
Stoker's vampire name, Dracula, became the epitome of the primal vampire. Although historically, the namesake model for Stoker's Dracula was the Romanian prince Vlad III. Dracula, also known as Vlad Tepes (Vlad the Impaler), he appealed to Romanian tradition. The prince was never described as a vampire or undead, but it is said that he occasionally drank from collected shells filled with the blood of his enemies.
In modern literature, the theme is processed in Anne Rice's The Vampire Chronicles and Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series, or in Angela Sommer-Petersburg's children's book series The Little Vampire.
Film and TV
→ See also: List of vampire films and Dracula adaptations
In 1912, the first vampire feature film, Vampyrdanserinden, by August Blom, appeared in Denmark. Since Friedrich Murnau's film Nosferatu, numerous other literary and cinematic works on the theme of vampires have emerged, including Dracula (Tod Browning, 1931), Vampyr – der Traum der Besessenen (Carl Theodor Dreyer, 1932), Plan 9 from Outer Space (Edward D. Wood, Jr., 1959), Nosferatu – Phantom of the Night (Werner Herzog, 1979), Roman Polanski's Dance of the Vampires, Dracula, Blade, Van Helsing, Underworld, Queen of the Damned, Interview with the Vampire, The Lost Boys, From Dusk Till Dawn, and the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Moonlight, Angel – Hunter of Darkness, and Blood Ties, as well as adaptations of Stephenie Meyer's novels Twilight – Bis (s) zum Morgengrauen, and Bram Stoker's Dracula.
Mel Brooks parodied Dracula in his film Dracula – Dead and Loving It. 30 Days of Night is a 2007 horror film with some different vampires. The Princess Vampire is a 2007 American documentary. Let the Right One In is a Swedish film, shot in 2008 based on the novel of the same name by John Ajvide Lindqvist.
Vampires in Video Games
Vampires are part of many games of various types. In card games, based on famous vampire films, vampires appear as army units (e.g., in the Heroes of Might and Magic series), controllable characters (Legacy of Kain, Vampire: The Masquerade), or antagonists (Castlevania).
Vampires in Other Media
The theme of vampires is the subject of various stage productions, such as the RPG Buffy and Vampire. The latter describes Cain's father as the vampire, whom God marked with the mark of Cain, leading to vampirism.
Half-Vampires
Modern horror and fantasy literature knows, alongside the classic vampire, the fictional figure of the half-vampire or dhampir. This character in literature and film is mainly used for the struggle between "good and evil." As a hybrid between human and vampire, the half-vampire sides with humanity, mostly filling the role of a vampire hunter. (See also Dhampir)
Real Vampires
→ See also: Vampire (Lifestyle)
The term Real Vampires or Modern Vampires refers to people of all age groups who, presumably, pay homage to vampires through their lifestyle—mainly in terms of clothing, appearance, false teeth, etc.—but with extremes such as blood consumption. This scene should not be confused with Satanism, although there are overlaps. Often, followers of this scene identify with the goths; the "Vampire Cult," as the scene is called, is also found in the gothic scene. However, the Real Vampire cult is a separate culture that has existed for decades.
Literature
Paul Barber: Vampires, Burial, and Death: Folklore and Reality. Yale University Press, New Haven CT 1988
Norbert Borrmann: Vampirism or the Desire for Immortality. 1999, ISBN 3-424-01351-X
Basil Copper: The Vampire: Legend, Art, and Reality. Leipzig, 2007, ISBN 978-3-86552-071-5.
Harald Gebhardt, Mario Ludwig: Of Dragons, Vampires, and Yetis - Fabulous Animals on the Trail. VLB-Verlag, Munich 2005. ISBN 3-405-16679-9.
Stefan Grothe: The Influence of Epidemics on the Development of the Vampire Myth as Reflected in the Vampire Debate in Leipzig 1725-1734. Cologne, 2001.
Dieter Harmening: The Beginnings of Dracula. On the History of the Stories. Würzburg, 1983
Markus Heitz: Vampires! Vampires! - Everything About Vampires. Piper Verlag, Munich, 2008, ISBN 978-3-492-29181-1.
Gerd H. Hövelmann: Vampire Scientific Literature. A Bibliographical Survey. In: Zeitschrift für Anomalistik 7, 2007, pp. 205–235.
Lee Byron Jennings: An Old German Vampire Tale: Waiblinger's "Wilhelm Olura" (first published in 1986). In: Stuttgarter Arbeiten zur Germanistik, No. 423, Hans-Heinz Dieter Verlag, Akademischer Verlag, Stuttgart 2004 [2005], pp. 295–306, ISBN 3-88099-428-5.
Stefan Keppler, Michael Will (eds.): The Vampire Film. Classics of the Genre in Individual Interpretations. Würzburg, 2006, ISBN 978-3-8260-3157-1.
Peter Kremer: Dracula's Cousins. On the Trail of Vampire Belief in Germany. Düren, 2006
Peter Mario Kreuter: The Vampires of Eastern Europe. Studies on Genesis, Meaning, and Function. Romania and the Balkans, Berlin, 2001, ISBN 978-3-89693-709-4.
Florian Kührer: Vampires. Monster - Myth - Media Star, Butzon Bercker & Publisher, Kevelaer, 2010, ISBN 978-3-7666-1396-7.
Hagen Schaub: Blood Traces: The History of Vampires. On the Trail of a Myth. Graz, 2008, ISBN 978-3-7011-7628-1.
Montague Summers: The Vampire: His Kiss and His Skeleton. London, 1928.
Montague Summers: The Vampire in Europe. Reprint London, 1929 (UDT as The Vampire in Lore and Legend. New York, 2002).
Historical Works (Ordered by Date)
Whye: Acts and Moderated Complicated Relationship of Those Vampires or People, Suckers, Who, in This and Previous Years, Have Been Born in the Kingdom of Serbia. Martini August, Leipzig, 1732 (digitization, Wikisource).
Whye: Curious and Wonderful Relationship, of What New Things from Serbia Can Be Shown Regarding Bloodsuckers, or Vampires, Communicated from Authentic News, and Accompanied by Philosophical and Historical Reflections by Whye [Sl] 1732 (digitization, Wikisource).
Heinrich Gottlob Vogt: Short Consideration and Reflection on the Moderated Acts Report Regarding Those Vampires, or Blood- and Cattle-Sucking Humans. Martini August, Leipzig, 1732 (digitization, Wikisource, a contradiction to Whye's work, the so-called spirit world).
Johann Christoph Harenberg: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Bloodsucking or Dead Vampires, Wolfenbüttel, 1733 (digitization, Wikisource).
Michael Ranft: Treatise on the Chewing and Creaking of the Dead in Tombs, Which Showed the True Nature of Hungarian Vampires and Bloodsuckers, and the Entire Matter That Came to Light from the Arnstadt Writings, Also Reviewed. Teubner's Bookstore, 1734 (digitization, Wikisource, revised edition: uBook-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-86608-015-8).
Augustin Calmet: Dissertations sur les apparitions des anges, des démons et des esprits. Et sur les revenans ou vampires de Hongrie, de Bohème, de Moravie et de Silésie. 1746; German edition: Scholars Negotiate the Question of Ghost Phenomena and Vampires in Hungary and Moravia. 1749 (Webrepro, digitized, revised edition: Edition Red Dragon, 2007, ISBN 978-3-939459-03-3).
Compilations of Historical Texts
Klaus Hamberger: Not Mortuus Murders. Documents on Vampirism 1689-1791. Vienna, 1992. ISBN 978-3-85132-025-1.
Klaus Hamberger: On Vampirism: Medical Records and Interpretations 1808-1899. Vienna, 1992. ISBN 978-3-85132-026-8.
Dieter Sturm, Klaus Volker (eds.): From Where Vampires and Suckers Come from Humans. Seals and Documents. Hanser, Munich, 1968.
References
1. ↑ Report from the British newspaper The Observer
2. ↑ Frombald: Copy of a Letter from the Gradisker District. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
3. ↑ [Augustin Calmet: Scholars Negotiate the Question of Ghost Phenomena and Vampires in Hungary and Moravia. Edition Red Dragon, 2007 (digitized).
4. ↑ Michael Ranft: Treatise on the Chewing and Creaking of the Dead in Tombs, Which Showed the True Nature of Hungarian Blood- and Suckers, and the Entire Matter That Came to Light from the Arnstadt Writings, Also Reviewed. 1734, Teubner's Bookstore.
5. ↑ Eduard Hoffmann-Krayer, Hanns-Bächtold-Stäubli (eds.): Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens. Volume 6, reprint. de Gruyter, Berlin, 2002, p. 819, ISBN 3-11-006594-0.
6. ↑ Johann Christoph Harenberg: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Vampire (1733).
7. ↑ Flückinger Johann: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Vampire. The Actenmäßige Report on the Vampire, Which Was Supposed to Have Been in Medvegia in Serbia on the Turkish Borders. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
8. ↑ Sandvik, H. & Baerheim, A. (1994): (Garlic against vampires? An experimental study). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen., 114 (30): 3583-3586. (Article in English, Norwegian abstract at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7825135?ordinalpos=4&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum).
9. ↑ See, for example: Prof. Christoph Augustynowicz: TRAG MICH NACH SÜDEN. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
{wiki.de}
(Translated from German) From Serbian вампир/vampire, it is folklore and mythology, a nocturnal bloodsucker, and usually the reanimated human corpse, human or animal blood and the lives of supernatural forces has. Depending on the culture and the myth forces, vampires are also attributed various magical properties. Sometimes it is also non-humans such as creatures of demons or animals (e.g., bats, dogs, spiders).
Named after the legendary figure, the blood-sucking bat (Desmodontinae), the only mammal group that exclusively feeds on the blood of other animals.
Reality and Myth
Origin
The models for the most widespread idea of vampires in Western Europe originate from Southeast Europe and Slavic folklore and Romanian mythology. The vampire spread from the Carpathian region through Romania (Transylvania), Hungary, Eastern Austria, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, and Greece. These vampires are scientifically understood, and primarily as a social, anthropological phenomenon, where the harm to individuals or the community caused by illness, crop failure, or death is attributed to them. The "bloodsucking" of the "vampire" is not the primary element in popular belief; rather, it is the removal from one's own grave. The cause had to be tracked down and identified by the village communities. A decaying corpse found in a suspicious grave (Peter Kreuter calls a cross or a rat hole a sign) was then dealt with in various ways, once dead and then burned, which is still what often happens to a vampire at the end of most films, etc.
In Orthodox Christian belief in Southeast Europe, priests far from the dying process, and the lack of a sacrament can be seen here as a blurring of the boundaries between the living and the dead. The idea of vampires is not only spread in Southeast Europe. Almost all over the world, there are myths about vampires or beings that share the most important characteristics with them, for example:
- ASANBOSAM (Ghana, Togo, Ivory Coast)
- ASWANG (Philippines)
- BAOBHAN SITH (Scotland)
- GHOULS (Greece, since ancient times)
- WRUKOLAKAS (also Greece)
- CHIANG-SHIH (China)
- DHAMPIR (or vampire) (Albania)
- VAMPIRE (Vampire), VUKODLAK (werewolf), Serbia, Croatia, Dalmatia)
The most famous alleged first vampire from Croatia, from the small village of Kringa (Istria), died in 1652 and lived there in his last years. He was a farmer and was named Jure Grando. In 1672, his grave was disturbed, and he is said to have often terrorized the village. In Vajkard Valvasor's literary work, this vampire is mentioned for the first time in European literature. Johann Joseph Görres, in his multi-volume work "Christian Mysticism," printed in Regensburg from 1836 to 1842, led to the background.
The founding fathers of the modern vampire myth can be considered John Polidori, J. Sheridan Le Fanu (1814-1873), and Bram Stoker. While the first awakened general interest in the figure of the vampire, Bram Stoker coined the concrete image of the vampire.
The majority of international popular vampire types and their names were determined by the British occultist Montague Summers (1880-1948). Summers was convinced of the existence of vampires and werewolves and declared every conceivable spooky being as proof of his theory of vampires, even if the folkloric tradition of the country was only vaguely similar to bloodsucking, even though Summers' definition of an undead was different.
Similarly, the vampire myth is derived from vampirism backward into superstition, and the consumption of blood as the essence of life is life-giving. Well-known in this context is the notorious blood-drinking "countess" Erzsébet Báthory (Elizabeth Bathory), who belonged to a Hungarian aristocratic family. After her husband's death, she is said to have bathed in the blood of over six hundred virgins in her castle to maintain her youth. This accusation was never proven or demonstrated. Similarly, the hustle and bustle of Countess Bathory contributed to the emergence of the vampire myth in Eastern Europe.
The most famous vampire from Romanian popular mythology is associated with Dracula (Vlad III. Dracula), who is linked to Vlad Tepes (in German: "the Impaler"). This appears to be a translation error on the part of a 19th-century Scottish writer, who compiled the world and provided writers of all sorts of fantastic characteristics for 20th-century non-fiction organizations until he became established in vampire encyclopedias.
To this day, beliefs in vampires or vampire-like forms appear in different ethnic groups in Asia, Africa, and South America, as well as in Eastern Europe. The internet, in particular, has emerged as a popular medium for dissemination.
The last exciting international vampire event in Europe dates back to 2005: In the Romanian village of Marotinu de Sus, the body of a resident who had died two years earlier was exhumed. This was suspected of being a local form of vampire - a Strigoi - that brought evil. The family members cut out the heart, burned it, dissolved the ashes in water, and drank the solution.[1]
Upir
As an alternative to the term "vampire," the name "Upir" (Ukrainian упир) became common in the early modern period, originating from Polish and Ukrainian. The suffix "pir" means "wing" or "suspended being," a sign of the vampire's supposed flight. The term "Upir" also likely stems from the fact that its origin is assumed to be in Southeastern Europe rather than in Poland.
The first recorded mention of the name Upir is from the year 1047 AD, referring to Prince Upir Lichyi near Novgorod in northwestern Greater Russia. In Western Russia, there are also places called Upiry and Upirow, whose inhabitants boast of being descendants of vampires.
Strigoi
Another variation of vampire belief in ancient Romanian folklore is found in the "Strigoi." Romanian is a Romance language, so the word originates from Latin, where "strix" means "witch." "Strigoi" are, "contrary to" the Greek "Upir" and the Romanian "Wrukolakas," only humans and not demonic spirits who return from the dead. "Strigoi" are also divided into two categories: "Strigoi morti" (dead Strigoi) and "Strigoi vii" (living Strigoi). The former are the living dead; the latter are people already cursed in their lifetime who, after death, are "forced" to become Strigoi.
Descent from a "Strigoi Mort" or, more rarely, from heavy sins of the mother. Anatomical discrepancies are interpreted as signs of such a curse, such as spine protrusions resembling a tail or parts of the amniotic sac grown on the head, referred to in Romanian vernacular as "omentum" (from Latin: "omentum," German: amniotic sac, see caul called). Originally, Strigoi had nothing to do with vampirism. Bloodlust was later attached to them through horror films, books, etc. Strigoi are believed to visit relatives of the deceased and want to take them with them. To create a boundary between the realm of the dead and the living, funeral spindles are attached to the grave and burned. Often, mirrors, soap, razors, etc., are placed in the grave as grave goods so that the deceased has no reason to return to the realm of the living and act as a Strigoi. This belief is widespread in Romania and Eastern European countries. Some iron is placed on the dead, a burning heart is put in. This is to prevent the dead from becoming Strigoi. In rare cases, Strigoi seek out relatives to make them sick or kill them.
Vampires in the German Language
Especially in the 18th century, many cases of vampires were reported, mainly in villages in Southeastern Europe. After the end of the last Turkish war in 1718, parts of the country, such as northern Serbia and parts of Bosnia, fell to Austria. This territory was settled by Orthodox Christian refugees who were granted the status of armed farmers. They were responsible for agricultural development and border security, which is why the first reports of vampires appeared in the German language.
Between 1718 and 1732, real vampire epidemics were reported in villages in Eastern European countries. One of the first and most famous reports from 1724-1725 refers to the village of Kisolova in central-eastern Serbia. The Kameralprovisor Frombald was tasked with clarifying who was responsible for the vampire cases. His report[2] was published on July 21, 1725, in the Austrian state newspaper. Frombald described his experiences in Kisolova. In this village, an increase in mortality was apparently the reason, with nine people dying within eight days, and others suffering from illness daily. Peter Plogojowitz (also Plagojevic, actually Blagojevic) was blamed, who had died ten weeks earlier. On his deathbed, he is said to have told patients that they had been strangled by Plogojowitz in their sleep, which was interpreted as the act of a later vampire. Plogojowitz's grave was opened, and the corpse was found in a state that suggested it was a vampire: it was still perfectly incorruptible, had a fresh complexion, and a foul odor of decay emanated from it. Furthermore, the skin, hair, and nails had grown, after which the original skin and nails had been torn off. Fresh blood was found in the orifices, thought to be the blood of the victims. The villagers therefore decided to exhume the corpse and burn it.
The report aroused great interest, and vampires from Eastern Europe quickly entered the German language, but were soon forgotten. Most of the affected villages sent doctors or priests to investigate the vampire cases. These allegedly exhumed the vampires and wrote—often extensive—reports of the plague. They also ensured that all decapitated bodies were burned and appeared suspicious.
From 1732 onwards, vampire reports were considered from many other perspectives, especially medical and scientific investigations. Numerous dissertations were written on the subject. In 1732, reports of the vampire myth also reached the French and Dutch public through the publication of reports from military villages in various newspapers. The doctors and skilled theologians of the corresponding regions often wrote about the death of a hitherto unknown disease. If victims of this disease were buried too shallowly, they could transfer it, which was supposed to explain the increase in deaths in the villages.
All "typical" vampire indicators can be explained by natural causes of the body, as Michael Ranft, who responded to the 1725 report from Kisolova as the first, stated. He wrote several treatises, such as "Dissertatio historico-critica de mortuorum in tumulis creatione, seu de masticatione et stridore mortuorum in sepulchris" (A historical-critical treatise on the chewing and creaking of the dead in tombs). He attributed all rational vampire marks, such as chewing and knocking sounds from decomposition processes and animal predation, incorruptibility to environmental influences and the deceased's constitution, as well as the fresh blood in the body's openings, which were allegedly tinged red by the vampire's secretions. He attributed characteristics identified by doctors and others to fear, superstition, and exaggerated imagination.
Augustin Calmet, a French Benedictine scholar, explained in his work published in 1745, "Dictionarium historicum, criticum et chronologicum," that as early as 1680, there were reports of vampires, especially from Serbian and Slavic languages. He also attributed natural causes to the vampire marks.
In 1755, Gerard van Swieten was sent from Moravia to investigate the situation of vampires in the country. Van Swieten was the personal physician to Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. He carefully examined the alleged vampire cases and wrote a sober report in which, like Ranft,[4] he attributed natural causes as an explanation for the vampires.
Thus, Gerard van Swieten was probably one of the most important fighters against the so-called superstition of the "common" people. Because of his report, Maria Theresa issued a decree on the subject of vampires, prohibiting traditional measures such as stakes, decapitation, and burning. She also ordered that references to so-called resurrected dead should no longer be reported to the church, which still obeyed superstition, but to the authorities. In 1756, she also sent the German surgeon Georg Taller to vampire-affected areas to investigate the situation again and to compile a new report. Eastern Europe was precisely at that time considered backward and in need of civilization. It was therefore only in the 18th century that it was seen as the antithesis of Western and Central Europe, which described itself as enlightened. The Enlightenment saw it as scandalous how such superstition could arise.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau aptly described the vampire myth of the 18th century:
"S'il y a jamais une histoire au monde et été garantie prouvée, c'est celle de vampiros. Rien ne manque: rapports officiels, témoignages de personnes de qualité, de chirurgie, de prêtre, juges de: l'est preuve complète."
(Translated approximately: "If ever there was a proven and tested story in the world, it is that of vampires. Nothing is missing: official reports, testimonies from people of quality, from surgeons, from priests, from judges: the proof is complete.")
The church, which allegedly continued to fuel superstition—as Maria Theresa's opinion suggests—was at least partially regulated and strongly opposed to the "measures" against vampires. Pope Benedict XIV replied to a question from a Polish archbishop, stating that he could only rely on van Swieten's report regarding "vampires" and that he was convinced of the absurdity of vampires. In his letter, he clearly indicated to the archbishop that he wanted him to "eradicate this superstition." He also threatened priests who promoted superstition with deposition.
In Germany, the term "vampire" has been in use since around 1720, i.e., since the first reports of the so-called "Serbian vampires" (Kisolova, Medveca). Earlier evidence, such as the farewell speech "you call us vampires," a supposed execution in Münster in 1643, or a French nobleman called Boaz, are pseudopoetic falsifications. Goethe's ballad "The Bride of Corinth" (1797) processed the vampire myth—at least in echoes—in literary form. His undead bride does not suck blood but leads her lover to her grave.
In German-speaking countries, the pure form of the vampire is not found, although there are various references, such as beliefs and parallel actions against an undead, that could be taken. After the apparent widespread occurrence in Germany, the undead remained in the grave and, as so-called Nachzehrer, sucked the life force from it. As early as the 14th to 17th centuries in Europe, there was a belief in so-called "Nachsterben" to kill ghosts and thus Nachzehrer. They were said to sit upright in the grave and chew their shroud or their own limbs to their relatives, and suck the life energy that they brought to the grave. Death took so long that the shroud was consumed, during which time a striking sound was heard from the grave.
Furthermore, the "butcher bird" (Pomerania, East Prussia) and the "sucker" (Wendland) are figures that come very close to the classic vampire figure, and their struggle is similar in detail to that of the vampires from Southeastern Europe.
As some vampire handbooks report, there is the idea in South America that vampires can turn into bats. The specific source of evidence for this transformation is not generally provided. If these reports of transformation in imagination correspond to reality, it would likely be due to the fact that in South America there is a group of bats (vampire bats) that feed exclusively on blood, but mainly on animal blood. Reports of attacks by blood-sucking bats on humans are speculative or sensationalist fantasies, but genuinely isolated incidents are rare. This shows the historical relationship of the vampire subject with the belief in werewolves (also called lycanthropes).
Attributed Characteristics
The different traditions of the vampire myth describe various characteristics and properties that make up the modern idea of the vampire. Such characteristics have been passed down from different sources, which vary in detail. It is estimated that only a fraction of the myths from that time have survived, but that allows for a unified description of a vampire to some extent.
According to this, vampires are undead creatures in human form who live in their graves and sleep in their coffins during the day. They are characterized by their pale appearance and feed exclusively on blood. This is probably why vampires have an abnormal bite, characterized by their sharp canine teeth, which are used for all these characteristics before. In many old depictions, two, rarely four, canines are mentioned. These vampires inflict a bite wound on their victims, who are essentially human, usually in the neck area near the artery. Then they drink their victims' blood to satisfy their bloodlust. Other depictions show vampires as having human form but being able to transform into bats or giant bat creatures. They can also climb walls.
An essential characteristic attributed to the vampire is immortality, combined with superhuman strength in general and bloodlust—a large part of the terror of the vampire myth. Furthermore, vampires have a pronounced sexual drive. Vampires are said to have a powerful attraction to their chosen sex and be seducers.
Those bitten by vampires become vampires themselves. In some legends, however, vampire bites are also documented in various ways. In some states, the vampire can decide whether its victim transforms into a vampire or a vampire, a kind of zombie-like metamorphosis. It is known that the ghoul has nothing to do with the vampire myth traditionally, as it originated in the circle of Persian and Arabic myths of corpse-eating demons. However, other stories say that a victim of a vampire could only become a vampire if a "dirty" animal, such as a cat, jumped over a corpse or an open grave. Another variation says that the vampire was a victim of the vampire only when they drank blood that had flowed through the vampire's veins.
In some legends, vampires can transform into bats or (rarely) into wolves, which has since proven that the transformation of the bat from Romanian popular mythology does not occur. Vampires are primarily seen as nocturnal creatures that dissolve into dust or burn when exposed to sunlight. This seems to be mainly an invention by director Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau for his film Nosferatu. In Abraham Stoker's depiction, this vulnerability is rather only a weakening of the vampire during the day. Often, this also means they do not have a mirror. Furthermore, it is reported that vampires were unable to cross running water or were generally afraid of water.
Even vampires can only enter an occupied building if an inhabitant has invited them. Furthermore, vampires are often attributed the ability to recover quickly from injuries.
Further details about vampires are not common; silver victim coins are placed in the mouth of the dead to prevent them from transforming into an undead.[5] Relevant examples for the review of written works from this period include the rational and Christian Thoughts on the Vampire from 1733[6] by Johann Christoph Harenberg, and a widely cited report[7] by the military doctor Johann Flückinger.
Defense
Legends provided passive protection against vampires, some of which were widely applied in the 18th century. Garlic and representations of a crucifix serve as deterrents. After an experimental study with blood, the effectiveness of garlic was questioned.[8] Holy water also harms vampires. The latter, in particular, emphasizes the idea of a vampire's "demonic character." Forms of destroying a vampire included decapitation and, above all, stakes (driving a wooden peg through the heart). In some depictions, however, stakes only lead to a kind of rigor mortis, after which the creature will return. Approaching a combination of these two practices (decapitation and stakes) should also prevent the vampire from returning as an undead. In this method, the vampire is impaled, and the creature's head is separated with a gravedigger's shovel. Then the mouth of the dead is filled with garlic.
In other regions, people place objects in the coffins of the dead to prevent these dead from rising from their graves again. This is done by placing grave goods such as fishing nets or poppy seeds in the graves. The dead person should annually open a knot or eat a poppy seed and remain occupied.
Vampires in the Media
The first vampires were made famous by their romantic portrayal in literature.[9] Bram Stoker's first vampire novel, Dracula (1897), as well as earlier stories like Carmilla by Joseph Sheridan LeFanu (1872) and John Polidori's The Vampyre (1819), laid the foundation and presented the dangerous monsters as objects of desire and soul.
Stoker's vampire name, Dracula, became the epitome of the primal vampire. Although historically, the namesake model for Stoker's Dracula was the Romanian prince Vlad III. Dracula, also known as Vlad Tepes (Vlad the Impaler), he appealed to Romanian tradition. The prince was never described as a vampire or undead, but it is said that he occasionally drank from collected shells filled with the blood of his enemies.
In modern literature, the theme is processed in Anne Rice's The Vampire Chronicles and Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series, or in Angela Sommer-Petersburg's children's book series The Little Vampire.
Film and TV
→ See also: List of vampire films and Dracula adaptations
In 1912, the first vampire feature film, Vampyrdanserinden, by August Blom, appeared in Denmark. Since Friedrich Murnau's film Nosferatu, numerous other literary and cinematic works on the theme of vampires have emerged, including Dracula (Tod Browning, 1931), Vampyr – der Traum der Besessenen (Carl Theodor Dreyer, 1932), Plan 9 from Outer Space (Edward D. Wood, Jr., 1959), Nosferatu – Phantom of the Night (Werner Herzog, 1979), Roman Polanski's Dance of the Vampires, Dracula, Blade, Van Helsing, Underworld, Queen of the Damned, Interview with the Vampire, The Lost Boys, From Dusk Till Dawn, and the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Moonlight, Angel – Hunter of Darkness, and Blood Ties, as well as adaptations of Stephenie Meyer's novels Twilight – Bis (s) zum Morgengrauen, and Bram Stoker's Dracula.
Mel Brooks parodied Dracula in his film Dracula – Dead and Loving It. 30 Days of Night is a 2007 horror film with some different vampires. The Princess Vampire is a 2007 American documentary. Let the Right One In is a Swedish film, shot in 2008 based on the novel of the same name by John Ajvide Lindqvist.
Vampires in Video Games
Vampires are part of many games of various types. In card games, based on famous vampire films, vampires appear as army units (e.g., in the Heroes of Might and Magic series), controllable characters (Legacy of Kain, Vampire: The Masquerade), or antagonists (Castlevania).
Vampires in Other Media
The theme of vampires is the subject of various stage productions, such as the RPG Buffy and Vampire. The latter describes Cain's father as the vampire, whom God marked with the mark of Cain, leading to vampirism.
Half-Vampires
Modern horror and fantasy literature knows, alongside the classic vampire, the fictional figure of the half-vampire or dhampir. This character in literature and film is mainly used for the struggle between "good and evil." As a hybrid between human and vampire, the half-vampire sides with humanity, mostly filling the role of a vampire hunter. (See also Dhampir)
Real Vampires
→ See also: Vampire (Lifestyle)
The term Real Vampires or Modern Vampires refers to people of all age groups who, presumably, pay homage to vampires through their lifestyle—mainly in terms of clothing, appearance, false teeth, etc.—but with extremes such as blood consumption. This scene should not be confused with Satanism, although there are overlaps. Often, followers of this scene identify with the goths; the "Vampire Cult," as the scene is called, is also found in the gothic scene. However, the Real Vampire cult is a separate culture that has existed for decades.
Literature
Paul Barber: Vampires, Burial, and Death: Folklore and Reality. Yale University Press, New Haven CT 1988
Norbert Borrmann: Vampirism or the Desire for Immortality. 1999, ISBN 3-424-01351-X
Basil Copper: The Vampire: Legend, Art, and Reality. Leipzig, 2007, ISBN 978-3-86552-071-5.
Harald Gebhardt, Mario Ludwig: Of Dragons, Vampires, and Yetis - Fabulous Animals on the Trail. VLB-Verlag, Munich 2005. ISBN 3-405-16679-9.
Stefan Grothe: The Influence of Epidemics on the Development of the Vampire Myth as Reflected in the Vampire Debate in Leipzig 1725-1734. Cologne, 2001.
Dieter Harmening: The Beginnings of Dracula. On the History of the Stories. Würzburg, 1983
Markus Heitz: Vampires! Vampires! - Everything About Vampires. Piper Verlag, Munich, 2008, ISBN 978-3-492-29181-1.
Gerd H. Hövelmann: Vampire Scientific Literature. A Bibliographical Survey. In: Zeitschrift für Anomalistik 7, 2007, pp. 205–235.
Lee Byron Jennings: An Old German Vampire Tale: Waiblinger's "Wilhelm Olura" (first published in 1986). In: Stuttgarter Arbeiten zur Germanistik, No. 423, Hans-Heinz Dieter Verlag, Akademischer Verlag, Stuttgart 2004 [2005], pp. 295–306, ISBN 3-88099-428-5.
Stefan Keppler, Michael Will (eds.): The Vampire Film. Classics of the Genre in Individual Interpretations. Würzburg, 2006, ISBN 978-3-8260-3157-1.
Peter Kremer: Dracula's Cousins. On the Trail of Vampire Belief in Germany. Düren, 2006
Peter Mario Kreuter: The Vampires of Eastern Europe. Studies on Genesis, Meaning, and Function. Romania and the Balkans, Berlin, 2001, ISBN 978-3-89693-709-4.
Florian Kührer: Vampires. Monster - Myth - Media Star, Butzon Bercker & Publisher, Kevelaer, 2010, ISBN 978-3-7666-1396-7.
Hagen Schaub: Blood Traces: The History of Vampires. On the Trail of a Myth. Graz, 2008, ISBN 978-3-7011-7628-1.
Montague Summers: The Vampire: His Kiss and His Skeleton. London, 1928.
Montague Summers: The Vampire in Europe. Reprint London, 1929 (UDT as The Vampire in Lore and Legend. New York, 2002).
Historical Works (Ordered by Date)
Whye: Acts and Moderated Complicated Relationship of Those Vampires or People, Suckers, Who, in This and Previous Years, Have Been Born in the Kingdom of Serbia. Martini August, Leipzig, 1732 (digitization, Wikisource).
Whye: Curious and Wonderful Relationship, of What New Things from Serbia Can Be Shown Regarding Bloodsuckers, or Vampires, Communicated from Authentic News, and Accompanied by Philosophical and Historical Reflections by Whye [Sl] 1732 (digitization, Wikisource).
Heinrich Gottlob Vogt: Short Consideration and Reflection on the Moderated Acts Report Regarding Those Vampires, or Blood- and Cattle-Sucking Humans. Martini August, Leipzig, 1732 (digitization, Wikisource, a contradiction to Whye's work, the so-called spirit world).
Johann Christoph Harenberg: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Bloodsucking or Dead Vampires, Wolfenbüttel, 1733 (digitization, Wikisource).
Michael Ranft: Treatise on the Chewing and Creaking of the Dead in Tombs, Which Showed the True Nature of Hungarian Vampires and Bloodsuckers, and the Entire Matter That Came to Light from the Arnstadt Writings, Also Reviewed. Teubner's Bookstore, 1734 (digitization, Wikisource, revised edition: uBook-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-86608-015-8).
Augustin Calmet: Dissertations sur les apparitions des anges, des démons et des esprits. Et sur les revenans ou vampires de Hongrie, de Bohème, de Moravie et de Silésie. 1746; German edition: Scholars Negotiate the Question of Ghost Phenomena and Vampires in Hungary and Moravia. 1749 (Webrepro, digitized, revised edition: Edition Red Dragon, 2007, ISBN 978-3-939459-03-3).
Compilations of Historical Texts
Klaus Hamberger: Not Mortuus Murders. Documents on Vampirism 1689-1791. Vienna, 1992. ISBN 978-3-85132-025-1.
Klaus Hamberger: On Vampirism: Medical Records and Interpretations 1808-1899. Vienna, 1992. ISBN 978-3-85132-026-8.
Dieter Sturm, Klaus Volker (eds.): From Where Vampires and Suckers Come from Humans. Seals and Documents. Hanser, Munich, 1968.
References
1. ↑ Report from the British newspaper The Observer
2. ↑ Frombald: Copy of a Letter from the Gradisker District. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
3. ↑ [Augustin Calmet: Scholars Negotiate the Question of Ghost Phenomena and Vampires in Hungary and Moravia. Edition Red Dragon, 2007 (digitized).
4. ↑ Michael Ranft: Treatise on the Chewing and Creaking of the Dead in Tombs, Which Showed the True Nature of Hungarian Blood- and Suckers, and the Entire Matter That Came to Light from the Arnstadt Writings, Also Reviewed. 1734, Teubner's Bookstore.
5. ↑ Eduard Hoffmann-Krayer, Hanns-Bächtold-Stäubli (eds.): Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens. Volume 6, reprint. de Gruyter, Berlin, 2002, p. 819, ISBN 3-11-006594-0.
6. ↑ Johann Christoph Harenberg: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Vampire (1733).
7. ↑ Flückinger Johann: Christian and Sensible Thoughts on the Vampire. The Actenmäßige Report on the Vampire, Which Was Supposed to Have Been in Medvegia in Serbia on the Turkish Borders. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
8. ↑ Sandvik, H. & Baerheim, A. (1994): (Garlic against vampires? An experimental study). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen., 114 (30): 3583-3586. (Article in English, Norwegian abstract at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7825135?ordinalpos=4&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum).
9. ↑ See, for example: Prof. Christoph Augustynowicz: TRAG MICH NACH SÜDEN. In: eLib, project eLibrary v. Hg, in: literature.at / elib (February 29, 2008).
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