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The instrument created by Binet tested children's ability in verbal and logical areas, since the academic curricula of high schools emphasized, above all, the development of language and mathematics. This instrument gave rise to the first intelligence test, developed by Terman at Stanford University, California: the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
Subsequent intelligence tests and the psychometric community had an enormous influence during this century on the idea of what intelligence is, although Binet himself (Binet & Simon, 1905, cited in Kornhaber & Gardner, 1989) stated that a single number, derived from a child's performance on a test, could not portray an issue as complex as human intelligence. In this article, I intend to present a view of intelligence that appreciates mental processes and human potential based on people's performance in different fields of knowledge.
The most recent research in cognitive development and neuropsychology suggests that cognitive abilities are much more differentiated and specific than previously believed (Gardner, 1985). Neurologists have documented that the human nervous system is not a single-purpose organ, nor is it infinitely plastic. It is believed today that the nervous system is highly differentiated and that different neural centers process different types of information (Gardner, 1987).
Howard Gardner, a psychologist at Harvard University, based himself on this research to question the traditional view of intelligence, a view that emphasizes linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. According to Gardner, all normal individuals are capable of performance in at least seven different and, to a certain extent, independent intellectual areas. He suggests that there are no general abilities, doubts the possibility of measuring intelligence through
paper-and-pencil tests, and places great importance on different performances valued in diverse cultures. Finally, he defines intelligence as the ability to solve problems or create products that are significant in one or more cultural settings.
The theory
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1985) is an alternative to the concept of intelligence as an innate, general, and unique capacity that allows individuals a performance, greater or lesser, in any area of activity. His dissatisfaction with the idea of IQ and with unitary views of intelligence, which focus primarily on skills important for school success, led Gardner to redefine intelligence in light of the biological origins of the ability to solve problems. Through the evaluation of the performances of different professionals in various cultures, and the repertoire of human skills in the search for culturally appropriate solutions to their problems, Gardner worked in the opposite direction of development, regressing to eventually arrive at the intelligences that gave rise to such achievements. In his research, Gardner also studied:
(a) the development of different skills in normal children and gifted children; (b) adults with brain injuries and how they do not lose the intensity of their intellectual production, but rather one or a few skills, without other skills being affected at all; (c) so-called exceptional populations, such as idiot-savants and autistics, and how the former may possess only one competence, being quite incapable in other brain functions, while autistic children present absences in their intellectual skills; (d) how cognitive development occurred over the millennia.
A constructivist psychologist heavily influenced by Piaget, Gardner distinguishes himself from his Geneva colleague in that Piaget believed that all aspects of symbolization stem from the same semiotic function, whereas he believes that independent psychological processes are employed when the individual deals with linguistic, numerical, gestural, or other symbols. According to Gardner, a child may have an early performance in one area (what Piaget would call formal thought) and be average or even below average in another (the equivalent, for example, to the sensorimotor stage). Gardner describes cognitive development as an increasing capacity to understand and express meaning in various symbolic systems used in a cultural context, and suggests that there is no necessary link between the capacity or stage of development in one area of performance and capacities or stages in other areas or domains (Malkus et al., 1988). On a psychological level of analysis, states Gardner (1982), each area or domain has its own symbolic system; on a sociological level of study, each domain is characterized by the development of competencies valued in specific cultures.
Gardner further suggests that human abilities are not organized horizontally; he proposes that we think of these abilities as organized vertically, and that, instead of there being a general mental faculty, such as memory, there may be independent forms of perception, memory, and learning in each area or domain, with possible similarities between areas, but not necessarily a direct relationship.
Multiple intelligences
Gardner identified linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences. He postulates that these intellectual competencies are relatively independent, have their own genetic origins and limits, specific neuroanatomical substrates, and possess their own cognitive processes. According to him, human beings possess varying degrees of each of the intelligences and different ways in which they combine, organize, and use these intellectual capacities to solve problems and create products. Gardner emphasizes that, although these intelligences are, to a certain extent, independent of each other, they rarely function in isolation. Although some occupations exemplify one intelligence, in most cases, occupations well illustrate the need for a combination of intelligences. For example, a surgeon needs the acuity of spatial intelligence combined with the dexterity of kinesthetic intelligence.
Linguistic intelligence - The central components of linguistic intelligence are a sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words, as well as a special perception of the different functions of language. It is the ability to use language to convince, please, stimulate, or convey ideas. Gardner indicates that it is the ability exhibited in its greatest intensity by poets. In children, this ability manifests itself through the capacity to tell original stories or to accurately recount lived experiences.
Musical intelligence - This intelligence manifests itself through an ability to appreciate, compose, or reproduce a piece of music. It includes sound discrimination, the ability to perceive musical themes, sensitivity to rhythms, textures, and timbre, and the ability to produce and/or reproduce music. A young child with special musical ability perceives different sounds in their environment early on and frequently sings to themselves.
Logical-mathematical intelligence - The central components of this intelligence are described by Gardner as a sensitivity to patterns, order, and systematization. It is the ability to explore relationships, categories, and patterns through the manipulation of objects or symbols, and to experiment in a controlled manner; it is the ability to deal with series of reasoning, to recognize problems, and to solve them. It is the intelligence characteristic of mathematicians and scientists. Gardner, however, explains that although scientific talent and mathematical talent may be present in the same individual, the motives that drive the actions of scientists and mathematicians are not the same. While mathematicians wish to create a consistent abstract world, scientists intend to explain nature. A child with special aptitude in this intelligence demonstrates ease in counting and performing mathematical calculations and in creating practical notations for their reasoning.
Spatial intelligence - Gardner describes spatial intelligence as the capacity to perceive the visual and spatial world accurately. It is the ability to manipulate shapes or objects mentally and, based on initial perceptions, create tension, balance, and composition in a visual or spatial representation. It is the intelligence of visual artists, engineers, and architects. In young children, the special potential in this intelligence is perceived through the ability for puzzles and other spatial games and attention to visual details.
Kinesthetic intelligence - This intelligence refers to the ability to solve problems or create products through the use of part or all of the body. It is the ability to use gross or fine coordination in sports, performing or visual arts, in controlling body movements, and in manipulating objects with dexterity. A child especially gifted in kinesthetic intelligence moves with grace and expression based on musical or verbal stimuli, demonstrating great athletic ability or refined fine coordination.
Interpersonal intelligence - This intelligence can be described as an ability to understand and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. It is best appreciated in the observation of psychotherapists, teachers, politicians, and successful salespeople. In its most primitive form, interpersonal intelligence manifests in young children as the ability to distinguish people, and in its most advanced form, as the ability to perceive the intentions and desires of other people and to react appropriately based on that perception. Especially gifted children demonstrate very early an ability to lead other children, as they are extremely sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.
Intrapersonal intelligence - This intelligence is the internal correlate of interpersonal intelligence, that is, the ability to access one's own feelings, dreams, and ideas, to discriminate between them, and to make use of them in solving personal problems. It is the recognition of one's own abilities, needs, desires, and intelligences, the capacity to formulate an accurate image of oneself, and the ability to use that image to function effectively. As this intelligence is the most personal of all, it is only observable through the symbolic systems of the other intelligences, that is, through linguistic, musical, or kinesthetic manifestations.
The development of intelligences
In his theory, Gardner proposes that all individuals, in principle, have the ability to question and seek answers using all intelligences. All individuals possess, as part of their genetic makeup, certain basic skills in all intelligences. The line of development of each intelligence, however, will be determined by both genetic and neurobiological factors and environmental conditions. He further proposes that each of these intelligences has its own form of thinking, or information processing, in addition to its symbolic system. These symbolic systems establish contact between the basic aspects of cognition and the variety of cultural roles and functions.
The notion of culture is basic to the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. With his definition of intelligence as the ability to solve problems or create products that are significant in one or more cultural settings, Gardner suggests that some talents only develop because they are valued by the environment. He states that each culture values certain talents, which must be mastered by a number of individuals and then passed on to the next generation.
According to Gardner, each domain, or intelligence, can be viewed in terms of a sequence of stages: while all normal individuals possess the most basic stages in all intelligences, the more sophisticated stages depend on greater work or learning.
The sequence of stages begins with what Gardner calls the raw pattern ability. The appearance of symbolic competence is seen in babies when they begin to perceive the world around them. In this phase, babies show the capacity to process different information. They already possess, however, the potential to develop systems of symbols, or symbolic systems.
The second stage, of basic symbolizations, occurs approximately from two to five years of age. In this stage, the intelligences reveal themselves through symbolic systems. Here, the child demonstrates their ability in each intelligence through the understanding and use of symbols: music through sounds, language through conversations or stories, spatial intelligence through drawings, etc.
In the following stage, the child, after having acquired some competence in the use of basic symbolizations, proceeds to acquire higher levels of dexterity in domains valued in their culture. As children progress in their understanding of symbolic systems, they learn the systems that Gardner calls second-order systems, that is, the notation of systems (writing, mathematical symbols, written music, etc.). In this phase, the various aspects of culture have a considerable impact on the child's development, as they will refine the symbolic systems that demonstrate greater efficacy in the performance of activities valued by the cultural group. Thus, a culture that values music will have a greater number of people who will achieve a high level of musical production.
Finally, during adolescence and adulthood, the intelligences reveal themselves through vocational or non-vocational occupations. In this phase, the individual adopts a specific and focused field, and fulfills themselves in roles that are significant in their culture.
Theory of multiple intelligences and education
The implications of Gardner's theory for education are clear when one analyzes the importance given to the diverse forms of thinking, the stages of development of the various intelligences, and the relationship existing between these stages, the acquisition of knowledge, and culture.
Gardner's theory presents alternatives to some current educational practices, offering a basis for:
(a) the development of assessments that are appropriate to the diverse human abilities (Gardner & Hatch, 1989; Blythe & Gardner, 1990); (b) a child-centered education with specific curricula for each area of knowledge (Kornhaber & Gardner, 1989; Blythe & Gardner, 1990); (c) a broader and more varied educational environment, which depends less on the exclusive development of language and logic (Walters & Gardner, 1985; Blythe & Gardner, 1990).
Regarding assessment, Gardner makes a distinction between assessment and testing. Assessment, according to him, favors methods of gathering information during day-to-day activities, whereas testing generally happens outside the known environment of the individual being tested. According to Gardner, it is important to make the most of individual abilities, helping students to develop their intellectual capacities, and, for this, instead of using assessment only as a way to classify, pass, or fail students, it should be used to inform the student about their capacity and inform the teacher about how much is being learned.
Gardner suggests that assessment must do justice to the intelligence, that is, it must give credit to the content of the intelligence being tested. If each intelligence has a certain number of specific processes, these processes must be measured with instruments that allow one to see the intelligence in question in operation. For Gardner, assessment must also be ecologically valid, that is, it must be done in known environments and must use materials known to the children being assessed. This author also emphasizes the need to assess the different intelligences in terms of their cultural manifestations and specific adult occupations. Thus, verbal ability, even in preschool, instead of being measured through vocabulary, definition, or similarity tests, should be assessed in manifestations such as the ability to tell stories or recount events. Instead of trying to assess spatial ability in isolation, one should observe children during a drawing activity or while they assemble or disassemble objects. Finally, he proposes that assessment, instead of being a product of the educational process, should be part of the educational process and the curriculum, informing at every moment how the curriculum should develop.
Regarding child-centered education, Gardner raises two important points that suggest the need for individualization. The first concerns the fact that, if individuals have cognitive profiles so different from one another, schools should, instead of offering a standardized education, try to ensure that each one receives the education that favors their individual potential. The second point raised by Gardner is equally important: while in the Middle Ages an individual could aspire to take possession of all universal knowledge, nowadays this task is totally impossible, and it is even quite difficult to master just one field of knowledge.
Thus, if there is a need to limit the emphasis and variety of content, let that limitation be each person's choice, favoring the individual intellectual profile.
Regarding the educational environment, Gardner draws attention to the fact that, although schools declare that they prepare their students for life, life is certainly not limited only to verbal and logical reasoning. He proposes that schools favor knowledge of diverse basic disciplines; that they encourage their students to use this knowledge to solve problems and perform tasks that are related to life in the community to which they belong; and that they favor the development of individual intellectual combinations, based on the regular assessment of each person's potential.
Bibliographic References
1. Blythe, T.; Gardner, H. A school for all intelligences. Educational Leadership, v.47, n.7, p.33-7, 1990.
2. Gardner, H.; Giftedness: speculation from a biological perspective. In: Feldman, D.H. Developmental approaches to giftedness and creativity. San Francisco, 1982. p.47-60.
3. Gardner, H. Frames of mind. New York, Basic Books Inc., 1985.
4. Gardner, H. The mind's new science. New York, Basic Books Inc., 1987.
5. Gardner, H.; Hatch, T. Multiple intelligences go to school: educational implications of the theory of Multiple Intelligences. Educational Researcher, v.18, n.8, p.4-10, 1989.
6. Kornhaber, M.L.; Gardner, H. Critical thinking across multiple intelligences. Paper presented during the Conference "The Curriculum Redefined". Paris, 1989.
7. Malkus, U.C.; Feldman, D.H.; Gardner, H. Dimensions of mind in early childhood. In: Pellegrini, A. (ed.) The psychological bases for early education. Chichester, Wiley, 1988, p.25-38.
8. Walters, J.M.; Gardner, H. The theory of multiple intelligences: some issues and answers. In: Sternberg, R.J.; Wagner, R.K. (ed.) Practical intelligence: nature and origins of competence in the everyday world. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p.163-82.
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